Lakshmi Narayanan
CIK 1231716 · View on SEC EDGAR ↗
First SEC filing: Aug. 27, 2003 · Latest: Aug. 27, 2003
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Insider transactions
Price change vs current quote, split-adjusted for corporate actions since the filing — not benchmarked, not annualized, not size-weighted
| Date | Ticker | Code | Shares | Price | Value | Owned after | Δ own | A/D | vs now |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| June 1, 2015 | CTSH | S | 50,000 | $65.25 | $3,262,500 | 85,210 Direct | -36.98% | Disposed | -6.1% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| May 29, 2015 | CTSH | S | 50,000 | $65.00 | $3,250,000 | 135,210 Direct | -27.00% | Disposed | -5.7% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| May 28, 2015 | CTSH | S | 42,965 | $64.75 | $2,781,984 | 185,210 Direct | -18.83% | Disposed | -5.4% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| May 27, 2015 | CTSH | S | 57,035 | $64.42 | $3,674,195 | 228,175 Direct | -20.00% | Disposed | -4.9% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Dec. 9, 2013 | CTSH | S | 750 | $94.93 | $71,198 | 142,250 Direct | -0.52% | Disposed | 29.1% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Dec. 6, 2013 | CTSH | S | 52,000 | $95.63 | $4,972,760 | 142,250 Direct | -26.77% | Disposed | 28.1% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Nov. 27, 2013 | CTSH | S | 75,000 | $95.00 | $7,125,000 | 103,610 Direct | -41.99% | Disposed | 29.0% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Nov. 15, 2013 | CTSH | S | 75,000 | $94.30 | $7,072,500 | 0 Direct | -100.00% | Disposed | 29.9% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Nov. 29, 2012 | CTSH | S 10b5-1 | 120,000 | $67.08 | $8,049,600 | 0 Direct | -100.00% | Disposed | 82.7% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Nov. 6, 2012 | CTSH | S 10b5-1 | 50,000 | $67.02 | $3,351,000 | 0 Direct | -100.00% | Disposed | 82.8% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Oct. 31, 2012 | CTSH | S 10b5-1 | 50,000 | $67.01 | $3,350,500 | 0 Direct | -100.00% | Disposed | 82.9% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Oct. 23, 2012 | CTSH | S 10b5-1 | 50,000 | $69.32 | $3,466,000 | 0 Direct | -100.00% | Disposed | 76.8% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Oct. 16, 2012 | CTSH | S 10b5-1 | 50,000 | $70.15 | $3,507,500 | 0 Direct | -100.00% | Disposed | 74.7% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Oct. 9, 2012 | CTSH | S 10b5-1 | 6,648 | $71.13 | $472,872 | 0 Direct | -100.00% | Disposed | 72.3% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Oct. 9, 2012 | CTSH | S 10b5-1 | 43,352 | $70.58 | $3,059,784 | 6,648 Direct | -86.70% | Disposed | 73.6% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Oct. 2, 2012 | CTSH | S 10b5-1 | 50,000 | $71.06 | $3,553,000 | 0 Direct | -100.00% | Disposed | 72.4% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Sept. 28, 2012 | CTSH | S 10b5-1 | 4,435 | $70.36 | $312,047 | 0 Direct | -100.00% | Disposed | 74.1% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Sept. 28, 2012 | CTSH | S 10b5-1 | 45,565 | $69.98 | $3,188,639 | 4,435 Direct | -91.13% | Disposed | 75.1% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Sept. 7, 2012 | CTSH | S | 100,000 | $67.00 | $6,700,000 | 0 Direct | -100.00% | Disposed | 82.9% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Sept. 7, 2012 | CTSH | S | 8,467 | $66.01 | $558,907 | 100,000 Direct | -7.81% | Disposed | 85.6% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Sept. 7, 2012 | CTSH | S | 91,533 | $66.00 | $6,041,178 | 108,467 Direct | -45.77% | Disposed | 85.7% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
| Aug. 16, 2012 | CTSH | S | 100,000 | $65.00 | $6,500,000 | 0 Direct | -100.00% | Disposed | 88.5% (price as of 2026-08-20) |
Showing latest 100 of 465 transactions
P = Open-market purchase · S = Sale · A = Grant/award · M = Option exercise · G = Gift · F = Tax withholding
Insider transactions are not a recommendation; sales are often driven by liquidity or tax reasons.
Derivative holdings (Form 4 Table II)
Options, RSUs and convertible securities reported on Form 4 Table II.
| Date | Ticker | Security | Underlying | Exercise price | Expiration | Shares | A/D |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| June 6, 2017 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (1,760) | — | — | 1,760 | Disposed |
| June 6, 2017 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (534) | — | — | 534 | Disposed |
| June 3, 2017 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (687) | — | June 3, 2017 | 687 | Disposed |
| June 2, 2017 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (533) | — | June 2, 2017 | 533 | Disposed |
| June 15, 2016 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (1,760) | — | — | 1,760 | Acquired |
| June 15, 2016 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) | Class A Common Stock (6,926) | $59.63 | June 15, 2023 | 6,926 | Acquired |
| June 4, 2016 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (1,028) | — | June 4, 2016 | 1,028 | Disposed |
| June 3, 2016 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (687) | — | June 3, 2016 | 687 | Disposed |
| June 2, 2016 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (533) | — | June 2, 2016 | 533 | Disposed |
| June 4, 2015 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (1,028) | — | June 4, 2015 | 1,028 | Disposed |
| June 3, 2015 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (687) | — | June 3, 2015 | 687 | Disposed |
| June 2, 2015 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (1,600) | — | — | 1,600 | Acquired |
| June 2, 2015 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) | Class A Common Stock (6,371) | $65.60 | June 2, 2022 | 6,371 | Acquired |
| June 4, 2014 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (1,028) | — | June 4, 2014 | 1,028 | Disposed |
| June 3, 2014 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock | — | — | 2,061 | Acquired |
| June 3, 2014 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) | Class A Common Stock | $48.50 | June 3, 2021 | 8,467 | Acquired |
| Dec. 9, 2013 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F3] | Class A Common Stock (750) | $33.70 | Aug. 7, 2016 | 750 | Disposed |
| Dec. 6, 2013 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F3] | Class A Common Stock (90,640) | $33.70 | Aug. 7, 2016 | 90,640 | Disposed |
| Nov. 27, 2013 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (130,780) | $33.70 | Aug. 7, 2016 | 130,780 | Disposed |
| Nov. 20, 2013 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F6] | Class A Common Stock (5,000) | $58.36 | June 5, 2019 | 5,000 | Disposed |
| Nov. 20, 2013 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F5] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $75.36 | June 2, 2018 | 10,000 | Disposed |
| Nov. 20, 2013 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F4] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $49.14 | June 1, 2017 | 10,000 | Disposed |
| Nov. 20, 2013 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F3] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $27.23 | June 5, 2016 | 10,000 | Disposed |
| Nov. 20, 2013 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $34.51 | June 10, 2018 | 10,000 | Disposed |
| Nov. 20, 2013 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (2,830) | $33.70 | Aug. 7, 2016 | 2,830 | Disposed |
| Nov. 15, 2013 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (75,000) | $33.70 | Aug. 7, 2016 | 75,000 | Disposed |
| June 4, 2013 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) | Class A Common Stock (5,780) | $64.82 | June 4, 2020 | 5,780 | Acquired |
| June 4, 2013 | CTSH | Restricted Stock Units | Class A Common Stock (1,542) | — | — | 1,542 | Acquired |
| Nov. 29, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F3] | Class A Common Stock (120,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 120,000 | Disposed |
| Nov. 6, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F3] | Class A Common Stock (50,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 50,000 | Disposed |
| Oct. 31, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F3] | Class A Common Stock (50,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 50,000 | Disposed |
| Oct. 23, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F3] | Class A Common Stock (50,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 50,000 | Disposed |
| Oct. 16, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F3] | Class A Common Stock (50,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 50,000 | Disposed |
| Oct. 9, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F4] | Class A Common Stock (50,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 50,000 | Disposed |
| Oct. 2, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F3] | Class A Common Stock (50,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 50,000 | Disposed |
| Sept. 28, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F4] | Class A Common Stock (50,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 50,000 | Disposed |
| Sept. 7, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (200,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 200,000 | Disposed |
| Aug. 16, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (100,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 100,000 | Disposed |
| June 5, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $58.36 | June 5, 2019 | 10,000 | Acquired |
| March 15, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (100,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 100,000 | Disposed |
| March 9, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (25,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 25,000 | Disposed |
| March 8, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (85,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 85,000 | Disposed |
| Feb. 27, 2012 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (40,000) | $5.06 | Feb. 5, 2013 | 40,000 | Disposed |
| June 2, 2011 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $75.36 | June 2, 2018 | 10,000 | Acquired |
| March 22, 2011 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (7,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 7,500 | Disposed |
| March 9, 2011 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (7,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 7,500 | Disposed |
| March 8, 2011 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 10,000 | Disposed |
| Feb. 18, 2011 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (5,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 5,000 | Disposed |
| Feb. 17, 2011 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (5,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 5,000 | Disposed |
| Feb. 8, 2011 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (20,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 20,000 | Disposed |
| Feb. 3, 2011 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (5,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 5,000 | Disposed |
| Feb. 2, 2011 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (9,860) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 9,860 | Disposed |
| Jan. 5, 2011 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (7,640) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 7,640 | Disposed |
| Jan. 3, 2011 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 10,000 | Disposed |
| Dec. 29, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (15,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 15,000 | Disposed |
| Dec. 27, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (7,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 7,500 | Disposed |
| Dec. 17, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (20,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 20,500 | Disposed |
| Dec. 13, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (7,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 7,500 | Disposed |
| Dec. 2, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (28,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 28,000 | Disposed |
| Dec. 1, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (15,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 15,000 | Disposed |
| Oct. 22, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (5,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 5,000 | Disposed |
| Oct. 21, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (18,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 18,000 | Disposed |
| Oct. 15, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (15,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 15,000 | Disposed |
| Oct. 1, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (17,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 17,500 | Disposed |
| Sept. 28, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (46,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 46,000 | Disposed |
| Sept. 24, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 10,000 | Disposed |
| Sept. 17, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (17,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 17,500 | Disposed |
| June 1, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $49.14 | June 1, 2017 | 10,000 | Acquired |
| March 1, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (62,880) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 62,880 | Disposed |
| Feb. 24, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (7,120) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 7,120 | Disposed |
| Jan. 13, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (40,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 40,000 | Disposed |
| Jan. 12, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 10,000 | Disposed |
| Jan. 5, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (25,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 25,000 | Disposed |
| Jan. 4, 2010 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (58,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 58,500 | Disposed |
| Dec. 28, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (7,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 7,500 | Disposed |
| Dec. 23, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (55,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 55,000 | Disposed |
| Dec. 22, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (27,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 27,500 | Disposed |
| Dec. 3, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 10,000 | Disposed |
| Dec. 2, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (20,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 20,000 | Disposed |
| Nov. 17, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (31,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 31,500 | Disposed |
| Nov. 16, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F2] | Class A Common Stock (45,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 45,000 | Disposed |
| June 12, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (109,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 109,000 | Disposed |
| June 11, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (26,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 26,500 | Disposed |
| June 9, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (25,500) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 25,500 | Disposed |
| June 8, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (30,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 30,000 | Disposed |
| June 5, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F3] | Class A Common Stock (32,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 32,000 | Disposed |
| June 5, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $27.23 | June 5, 2016 | 10,000 | Acquired |
| June 4, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (27,000) | $2.37 | March 29, 2011 | 27,000 | Disposed |
| March 13, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (12,000) | $1.02 | May 14, 2009 | 12,000 | Disposed |
| March 12, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (24,542) | $1.02 | May 14, 2009 | 24,542 | Disposed |
| March 11, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (13,000) | $1.02 | May 14, 2009 | 13,000 | Disposed |
| March 10, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (27,500) | $1.02 | May 14, 2009 | 27,500 | Disposed |
| March 9, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (9,000) | $1.02 | May 14, 2009 | 9,000 | Disposed |
| March 6, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (25,000) | $1.02 | May 14, 2009 | 25,000 | Disposed |
| March 5, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (9,000) | $1.02 | May 14, 2009 | 9,000 | Disposed |
| March 4, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (24,800) | $1.02 | May 14, 2009 | 24,800 | Disposed |
| March 3, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (18,000) | $1.02 | May 14, 2009 | 18,000 | Disposed |
| March 2, 2009 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (12,500) | $1.02 | May 14, 2009 | 12,500 | Disposed |
| June 10, 2008 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (10,000) | $34.51 | June 10, 2018 | 10,000 | Acquired |
| May 30, 2008 | CTSH | Class A Common Stock Option (Right to Buy) [F1] | Class A Common Stock (81,598) | $1.02 | May 14, 2009 | 81,598 | Disposed |
Showing latest 100 of 129 transactions
Exercise/conversion price is blank when not applicable (e.g. RSUs).
Compensation (DEF 14A)
Matched by name from proxy statements (DEF 14A) — verify against the filing.
| Fiscal year | Salary | Bonus | Stock awards | Option awards | Non-equity incentive | Pension change | Other | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2008 | $95,554 | — | — | — | — | — | $4,446 | $1,193,559 |
| 2007 | $234,515 | — | — | — | — | $8,887 | $5,485 | $1,353,922 |
| 2006 | $235,103 | — | — | — | $327,680 | $2,903 | $4,897 | $1,508,414 |
Figures from the Summary Compensation Table of the company's proxy statement (DEF 14A). Compensation is not a recommendation.